‘Religion is concerned with the life here and now’ (Leach). (Jesus, ritual)

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‘Religion is concerned with the life here and now’ (Leach).
‘Religion is concerned with the life here and now’ (Leach).
Nehustan
05-01-2006

‘Religion is concerned with the life here and now’ (Leach). Consideration of this assertion with reference to Islam.

A certain lack of ethnographic research presents itself upon the specific issue proposed herein, that being the ‘…here and now’ as presumably opposed to the ‘here after’. Though the author of this article is sure much ethnographic work exists on the cultures falling under the ‘banner’ of Islam, he has found that few deeply consider this specific doctrinal aspect of Islam. In ‘The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology’ (Izutzu, T., 1965, p.52) the writer speaks briefly of the two Islamic principles (at least giving the Arabic if not expanding on the concepts), 'the present world (al-dunya) rather than with the world to come (al-akhirah).’ This shallowly illustrates that Islam has very clearly defined theological concepts concerning the issue at hand. As Islam and the body of scholastic work therein greatly outweigh either the ethnographic or wider anthropological studies on this subject, the discourse on these two specific terms will be considered from ‘Islamic’ sources as well as contributions from ‘etic’ writers. It may of course be, and in fact is more than likely, that Leach was not intending to fuel a deep debate on the Islamic sciences or the finer points of theology generally. From a merely anthropological perspective the assertion can be considered as meaning that ‘religion’ as a wider cross cultural phenomena is a functional social construct, or is an intellectual rationale concerning an understanding of the cosmos and this shall be discussed regarding Islam, and prior to summarising with the Islamic perspective.

It is common to come across writers who have stressed the ‘orthodoxy’ of Islam, usually meaning that the religion is effectively no more than a set of rules and regulations, and as such a function of society. Such attitudes are reported by Said in his book ‘Orientalism’, firstly citing what he takes to be Caussin’s theory of ‘Islam being essentially a political instrument, not by any means a spiritual one’(2003, p.151) and Said goes on to show that Islam has been considered a primarily a legislative movement referring to Gibb’s assumption that arts, aesthetics, philosophy, and religious thought (considered to have originated from outside of ‘Islam’) are considered secondary to law, ‘the Islamic master science is law, which early on replaced theology.’(2003, p.280) commentators who do acknowledge the spiritual dimension to the religion often propose that the metaphysical is somehow beyond what might be termed traditional or orthodox Islam, lurking at the margins within what is neatly termed ‘Sufism’. This idea can be considered thus,‘in terms of Weberian theory, the “traditional” and “legal-rational” authority of the Ulama was undermined by the free-flowing “charismatic” authority of the Sufi shaykhs.’ (Hamzeh & Dekmejian, 1996, p.217) An Important factor to acknowledge here is the orthodoxy of historical ‘Sufi’ scholars. It is important to realise that there is not necessarily a dialectic between orthodoxy and mysticism within Islam. The great Islamic Scholar Al-Ghazali, known for his forty volume epic ‘Ihya Ulum-id-Din’ (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), is considered to be both Sufi and orthodox. ‘Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111) has been credited with establishing a fruitful rapport between Sufism and traditional Islam (Sunna).’ (Burrell and Daher, 1997) Sufism then does not replace orthodoxy, or even fulfil a missing metaphysical dimension; ‘There was nothing in ancient and orthodox Islam like an individual quest for salvation, nor was there any mysticism’ (Morris citing Weber, 2000, p.84). When it is truly practiced Sufism sits upon the ritual foundation of Islam helping to elevate the thinker from the ‘here and now’. Sufism is popular within western circles as it is seen as somehow separate from the ‘demanding’ obligations of Islam. This is not true. The Sufi is freed from the mundane obligations by his transcendence over and indeed by them, not by his refusal to carry them out. The writer of this article feels a necessity to point out that, in his opinion, the most metaphysical and mystical writings of Islam are contained within the Quran and the Hadith, and are the source of all subsequent works. The legal aspects of Islam then would seem to place Islam firmly in the ‘here and now’, and of course Islam, could it speak with its own voice, may certainly consider itself as partly dealing with the mundane. If one were to take Durkheim’s breakdown of the function of religion and apply it to Islam, there would be little argument from Muslims that their religion fulfilled these roles. For instance the basis of Shariah (Islamic Law) could be considered as judgements on the divine prescriptions of the Quran and the subsequent teachings of Muhammad, on what is considered permitted/lawful/halal (Sacred), that which is considered prohibited/unlawful/haram (Profane), and that ‘the critical feature of the sacred was that it unified worshippers in a single moral community’ (Barfield, 1997, p.402). If however one was to consider Durkheim’s view that all religions were in some way inherently ‘totemic’, and thus symbolic of wider society (Barfield, 1997, p.402), then it is hard to see how this applies to ‘orthodox’ Islam, especially given its clear edicts concerning the use of any image or symbol, further than the semiology of language itself, whether it is spoken, written or read. If a ‘totemic’ concept exists at all within Islam, it could be seen in the genealogies of tribal and clan structure. This is discussed in detail by I.M. Lewis in his ethnography concerning Somalia (1998). Here Lewis recounts the importance of Sufism, the ‘saint cults’ surrounding it, and genealogies within the Somali context. While often a difference is made between ‘Folk’ and ‘High’ religion, ‘a distinction can be made between High Islam, carried by urban scholars and emphasising order, rule observance, sobriety and learning, and Folk Islam, which may involve magic, ecstasy, and saint cults.’(Hinde, R. A., 1999, p.64) Lewis illustrates that this is not as simple as it may appear, as ‘historically, as has been amply demonstrated by historians of Islam, Sufism is essentially the work of sophisticated and highly literate urban men of learning and thrives as successfully amongst their less fortunate fellow townsmen (and townswomen) as amongst rural populations. Urban Islam itself is of course far from the mode of sober legalistic orthodoxy…’ (Lewis, 1998, p. xvi). In his study of ‘popular’ Islam in Somalia Lewis illustrates how a function of social cohesion and continuity is provided by genealogies, demonstrating the relationship of clans with past holymen/saints, and even claims of a direct ancestral link with Muhammad, the Hashim, and the Quraysh. This is also cited by Hinde, who states that ‘reverence for local saints supposedly linked to the Prophet by genealogy…’(1999, p.204). In this way the ancestors can be seen as totemic (Lewis, 1998, pp.5-22). This manifestation illustrates how mystical Islam has been appropriated to serve a more mundane social function. Lewis also outlines how Islam, in his opinion has ‘adopted’ the gods that preceded the arrival of Islam, in short, syncretism. Although this idea is attributed to Islam, it is in nature totally foreign to Islam, as pointed out by Asad, ‘that Islam is simply what Muslims everywhere say it is – will not do, if only because there are everywhere Muslims who say that what other people take to be Islam is not Islam at all.’

The foundation of Islamic faith is the Shahada or declaration of faith. This is where the believer, established or novice, states a negation followed by an affirmation; ‘There is no god…but Allah…’ followed by an affirmation of the prophethood of Muhammad. This then is considered to purge the believer of any false concept of God, accepting the infinite, and absolute, an idea that might have been familiar to Müller who considered religion as the ‘perception of the infinite’ (Morris,1999, p93). Thus syncretism does not play a part in Islam as revealed by the Prophet, within the ‘saint cults’ it is arguable that it may take place as recounted by Lewis (1998, pp.22-30) and also Weber (cited by Morris, 2000, pp.76-77). If we return to Durkheim’s idea that the ‘sacred’ binds the community together with shared values, then the ‘sacred’ rites performed within the faith also perform this function. In the context of Islam the compulsory obligations form the followers into a body, further than this the example provided by Muhammad (Sunna) leads the believers to remember God in all of their actions (dhikr), thus, ‘religion penetrates all aspects of their lives – there is no experience or part of the day that does not come under its jurisdiction’ (Bowie, F., 2002, p.27). This idea is firmly held within Islam. Muhammad was not only a spiritual teacher, he established a whole socio-economic and political system at the birth of the Islamic nation at Medina, and if one considers the premise of this paper, then Islam is certainly concerned with the ‘here and now’. When we consider Islam as more than merely a spiritual path, but as an entire system, one is drawn quickly to a Marxian analysis. The idea that any religion deals with anything but the ‘here and the now’ would be seen as a ‘false consciousness’. The promise of a ‘life to come’ and religion as a wider phenomena would appear to Marx to be a tool of the ruling elite, a promise and an ideology used to keep the people under control; an ‘enslaving alienation’, a ‘fantasy world of harmony, beauty, and contentment – while living in a practical everyday world of pain and misery’ (Course notes, 2004). Hegel, a direct influence on Marx, wrote that political hegemony and hierarchy, in the context of Rome, ‘had chased the human spirit from the earth and spread misery which compelled men to seek and expect happiness in heaven; robbed of freedom, their spirit, their eternal and absolute element, was forced to take flight to the deity’ (cited by Morris, 2000, p.15). Islam, as in fact many religions, is then in a paradoxical position illustrated by the ‘revolutionary’ nature of its beginnings, as‘in the great majority of cases, a prophetically announced religion of redemption has had its permanent locus among the less-favoured social strata’ (Gerth & Mills, 1948, p.247, cited by Morris, 2000, p.76). Considering Marx further, in his statement; ‘This state, this society, produce religion…’ (Course notes, 2004) it is obvious that he considers that society produces religion, but in relation to the Islamic state could it not be argued that this is the antithesis of his idea rather ‘This religion, this state, produces society.’ (though admittedly it could be argued that the situation in Mecca prior to Muhammad’s revelation played a part in the foundation of Islam). Despite the obvious argument that Islam may have been progressive in its origin, it has been stated (as previously shown) that it is traditionalist. Weber considered that Islam was ‘steeped in traditionalism’ but this was argued against by Maxime Rodinson who argued that; ‘the ideology of the Koran was by no means traditionalist.’ (Morris, B., 2000, pp.86-87). If one considers the economic system proposed within Islam, it is economically revolutionary even when compared to modern standards; the prohibition of usury is in direct contradiction to the ideology dissected by Marx in ‘Capital’, and the establishment of the Bayt Al-Zakat (House of Tax) can easily be compared to a prototype of a welfare system. Islam is however considered less spiritual by its dealing with worldly matters, the axiom of Jesus; ‘render unto Caesar that which is Caesars, and render unto God that which is God’s’ is cited as emphasising this when compared to Christianity (Asad, 1986, p.3 & Said, 2003, p.299, citing Halpern, M.). Islam when considered within its historical context was progressive in its ideas for the ‘life here and now’. While many Muslims would argue that it remains just as progressive within the modern framework, others will see it as a conservative tool keeping a traditional hegemony.

Returning to a solely Islamic perspective, and to conclude, we may now consider ‘al-dunya’ (the here and now) and ‘al-akhirah’ (the here-after). Faith in the afterlife is a ‘basic belief’ of Islam, following belief in the unity of Allah (Tawhid) and the prophethood of Muhammad, and these three together ‘summarise the whole of the Islamic system of life’ (Sarwar, 1984, pp.18-19). A hadith of Muhammad, recounted byAbu Huraira, one of the Sahaba (companions of the prophet) reports that;

‘One day the Messenger of Allah appeared before the public saying that a man came to him and said: ‘Prophet of Allah, what is Iman.’ Upon this he replied: ‘That you affirm your faith in Allah, His angels, His Books, His meeting, His Messengers and that you affirm your faith in the Resurrection hereafter…’ (Sahih Muslim)

While Islam can be considered to certainly deal with the present, to believe it only serves a social purpose is to recant a basic ‘tenet’. The world of the present is seen as an opportunity to prepare. This however does not imply that this world is inherently evil as professed in the Gnostic ‘heresy’ of the Christian faith, though undoubtedly the life of the world to come is considered superior for the souls of humankind. A favourite hadith (saying of the prophet) of the famous Sufi poet Jalal al- Din Rumi is said to have been; ‘al-dunya mazra al-akhira’ (this world is the sprouting-bed of the next). Julie Scott Meisama, reporting this, expands on the metaphor saying, ‘Just as the nature of the seed, inherent within it, is revealed at it’s sprouting, man’s acts in this world, revelatory of his own nature, bear fruit for him both here and in the Hereafter.’ (1985, pp. 243-244). Muslims believe that the true reality is in fact Allah, and one of Allah’s ninety-nine names is in fact The Truth (Al-Haqq), plainly put, ‘this world (al-dunya) hides the next world (al-akhirah), or creation (al-Khalq) hides the Real (Al-Haqq).’ (Stelzer, 1996.)

To summarize the two Islamic ideas illustrated here the writer of this article wishes to recount a question that was asked of him by a Muslim; ‘Is it better to spend three days restrained then a whole life as free, or live three days as free then a whole life restrained?’

REFERENCES

Asad, T., 1986, The idea of an anthropology of islam, Centre for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, Washington D.C., USA.

Barfield, T., (ed.) 1997, The dictionary of anthropology, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Bowie, F., 2002, The anthropology of religion, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Burrell, D. B., & Daher, N., 1997, Al-ghazali: the ninety-nine beautiful names of god, The Islamic Texts Society, Cambridge, UK.

Hamzeh, A, N., & Dekmejian, R. H., 1996, A Sufi Response to Political Islamism; Al-Abash of Lebanon., International journal of middle east studies, Vol. 28, No.2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Hinde, R. A., 1999, Why gods persist: a scientific approach to religion, Routledge, London, UK.

Izutzu, T., 1965, The concept of belief in islamic theology; a semantic analysis of iman and islam, Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies, Keio University, Tokyo.

Lewis, I. M., 1998, Saints and somalis: popular islam in a clan based society, Haan Associates Publishing, London, UK.

Meisami, J. G., 1985, Allegorical Gardens in the Persian Poetic Tradition: Nezami, Rumi, Hafez., International journal of middle east studies, Vol. 17, No. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Morris, B., 2000 (first published 1987), Anthropological studies of religion: an introductory text, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Sahih Muslim Hadeeth (Translation) No.4, Book 1, Kitab Al-Iman (The Book of Faith), retrieved fromhttp://www.wponline.org/vil/hadeeth/muslim/001_smt.html#002_b1

Said, E. W., 2003 (First published in1978), Orientalism, Penguin Books, London, UK.

Sarwar, G., 1984, Islam: beliefs and teachings, The Muslim Educational Trust, London.

Stelzer, S., 1996, Decisive Meetings: Ibn Rushd, Ibn ‘Arabi, and the Matter of Knowledge, Alif: journal of comparative poetics, No.16, American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, Egypt.

Williams, M., 2004, Course Notes, Session 3, Karl marx (1818-83).

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